Water Erosion Rates Essay Example for Free

Water Erosion Rates Essay A natural arch produced by the erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz, Jordan Erosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earths surface by natural processes such as wind or water flow, and then transported and deposited in other locations. While erosion is a natural process, human activities have dramatically increased (by 10-40 times) the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive erosion causes problems such as desertification, decreases in agricultural productivity due to land degradation, sedimentation of waterways, and ecological collapse due to loss of the nutrient rich upper soil layers. Water and wind erosion are now the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for 84% of degraded acreage, making excessive erosion one of the most significant global environmental problems we face today.[1][2] Industrial agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regards to their effect on stimulating erosion.[3] However, there are many available alternative land use practices that can curtail or limit erosion—such as terrace-building, no-till agriculture, and revegetation of denuded soils. Frost weathering From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Frost action) Aly by mechanical frost weathering or thermal stress Frost weathering is a collective term for several mechanical weathering processes induced by stresses created by the freezing of water into ice. The term serves as an umbrella term for a variety of processes such as frost shattering, frost wedging and cryofracturing. The process may act on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, from minutes to years and from dislodging mineral grains to fracturing boulders. Frost weathering is mainly driven by the frequency and intensity of freeze-thaw cycles and the properties of the materials subject to weathering. It is most pronounced in high altitude and latitude areas and is especially associated with alpine, periglacial, subpolar maritime and polar climates but occurs wherever freeze-thaw cycles are present. * | When water freezes to ice, its volume increases by nine percent. Under specific circumstances, this expansion is able to displace or fracture rock. At a temperature of -22 Â °C, ice growth is known to be able to generate pressures of up to 207MPa, more than enough to fracture any rock.[1][2] For frost weathering to occur by volumetric expansion, the rock must have almost no air that can be compressed to compensate for the expansion of ice, which means it has to be water-saturated and frozen quickly from all sides so that the water does not migrate away and the pressure is exerted on the rock.[1] These conditions are considered unusual,[1] restricting it to a process of importance within a few centimeters of a rocks surface and on larger existing water-filled joints in a process called ice wedging. Not all volumetric expansion is caused by the pressure of the freezing water; it can be caused by stresses in water that remains unfrozen. When ice growth induces stresses in the pore water that breaks the rock, the result is called hydrofracture. Hydrofracturing is favoured by large interconnected pores or large hydraulic gradients in the rock. If there are small pores, a very quick freezing of water in parts of the rock may expel water, and if the water is expelled faster than it can migrate, pressure may rise, fracturing the rock. Since research in physical weathering begun around 1900, volumetric expansion was, until the 1980s, held to be the predominant process behind frost weathering.[3] This view was challenged in 1985 and 1986 publications by Walder and Hallet.[1][3] Nowadays researchers such as Matsuoka and Murton consider the conditions necessary for Biological weathering A number of plants and animals may create chemical weathering through release of acidic compounds, i.e. moss on roofs is classed as weathering. Mineral weathering can also be initiated and/or accelerated by soil microorganisms. Lichens on rocks are thought to increase chemical weathering rates. For example, an experimental study on hornblende granite in New Jersey, USA, demonstrated a 3x 4x increase in weathering rate under lichen covered surfaces compared to recently exposed bare rock surfaces.[7] The most common forms of biological weathering are the release of chelating compounds (i.e. organic acids, siderophores) and of acidifying molecules (i.e. protons, organic acids) by plants so as to break down aluminium and iron containing compounds in the soils beneath them. Decaying remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids which, when dissolved in water, cause chemical weathering.[citation needed] Extreme release of chelating compounds can easily affect surrounding rocks and soils, and may lead to podsolisation of soils. The symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi associated with tree root systems can release inorganic nutrients from minerals such as apatite or biotite and transfer these nutrients to the trees, thus contributing to tree nutrition.[8] It was also recently evidenced that bacterial communities can impact mineral stability leading to the release of inorganic nutrients.[9] To date a large range of bacterial strains or communities from diverse genera have been reported to be able to colonize mineral surfaces and/or to weather minerals, and for some of them a plant growth promoting effect was demonstrated.[10] The demonstrated or hypothesised mechanisms used by bacteria to weather minerals include several oxidoreduction and dissolution reactions as well as the production of weathering agents, such as protons, organic acids and chelating molecules. Oxidation Within the weathering environment chemical oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) and combination with oxygen and water to form Fe3+ hydroxides and oxides such as goethite, limonite, and hematite. This gives the affected rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock. This process is better known as rusting, though it is distinct from the rusting of metallic iron. Many other metallic ores and minerals oxidize and hydrate to produce colored deposits, such as chalcopyrites or CuFeS2 oxidizing to copper hydroxide and iron oxides. Dissolution and carbonation A pyrite cube has dissolved away from host rock, leaving gold behind Rainfall is acidic because atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the rainwater producing weak carbonic acid. In unpolluted environments, the rainfall pH is around 5.6. Acid rain occurs when gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are present in the atmosphere. These oxides react in the rain water to produce stronger acids and can lower the pH to 4.5 or even 3.0. Sulfur dioxide, SO2, comes from volcanic eruptions or from fossil fuels, can become sulfuric acid within rainwater, which can cause solution weathering to the rocks on which it falls. Some minerals, due to their natural solubility (e.g. evaporites), oxidation potential (iron-rich minerals, such as pyrite), or instability relative to surficial conditions (see Goldich dissolution series) will weather through dissolution naturally, even without acidic water. Exfoliation is a type of erosion that occurs when a rock is rapidly heated up by the sun. This results in the expansion of the rock. When the temperature decreases again, the rock contracts, causing pieces of the rock to break off. Exfoliation occurs mainly in deserts due to the high temperatures during the day and cold temperatures at night.[24] Hydration Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. When rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses within the rock. For example iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum. A freshly broken rock shows differential chemical weathering (probably mostly oxidation) progressing inward. This piece of sandstone was found in glacial drift near Angelica, New York Hydrolysis on silicates and carbonates Hydrolysis is a chemical weathering process affecting silicate and carbonate minerals. In such reactions, pure water ionizes slightly and reacts with silicate minerals. An example reaction: This reaction theoretically results in complete dissolution of the original mineral, if enough water is available to drive the reaction. In reality, pure water rarely acts as a H+ donor. Carbon dioxide, though, dissolves readily in water forming a weak acid and H+ donor. This hydrolysis reaction is much more common. Carbonic acid is consumed by silicate weathering, resulting in more alkaline solutions because of the bicarbonate. This is an important reaction in controlling the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and can affect climate. Aluminosilicates when subjected to the hydrolysis reaction produce a secondary mineral rather than simply releasing cations. Rainfall There are three primary types of erosion that occur as a direct result of rainfall—sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion. Sheet erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion process, which is followed by rill erosion, and finally gully erosion (the most severe of the three).[4][5] The impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil, ejecting soil particles. The distance these soil particles travel (on level ground) can be as much as 2 feet vertically, and 5 feet horizontally. Once the rate of rain fall is faster than the rate of infiltration into the soil, surface runoff occurs and carries the loosened soil particles down slope.[6] Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths, which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes. Generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically on the order of a few centimeters or less and slopes may be quite steep. This means that rills exhibit very different hydraulic physics than water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers.[ Gully erosion occurs when runoff water accumulates, and then rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a considerable depth. Factors affecting erosion rates Climatic factors include the amount and intensity of precipitation, the average temperature, as well as the typical temperature range, seasonality, wind speed, and storm frequency. In general, given similar vegetation and ecosystems, areas with high-intensity precipitation, more frequent rainfall, more wind, or more storms are expected to have more erosion.[citation needed] Rainfall intensity is the primary determinant of erosivity, with higher intensity rainfall generally resulting in more erosion. The size and velocity of rain drops is also an important factor. Larger and higher-velocity rain drops have greater kinetic energy, and thus their impact will displace soil particles by larger distances than smaller, slower-moving rain drops.[25] Erosional gully in unconsolidated Dead Sea (Israel) sediments along the southwestern shore. This gully was excavated by floods from the Judean Mountains in less than a year. The composition, moisture, and compaction of soil are all major factors in determining the erosivity of rainfall. Sediments containing more clay tend to be more resistant to erosion than those with sand or silt, because the clay helps bind soil particles together.[26] Soil containing high levels of organic materials are often more resistant to erosion, because the organic materials coagulate soil colloids and create a stronger, more stable soil structure.[27] The amount of water present in the soil before the precipitation also plays an important role, because it sets limits on the amount of water that can be absorbed by the soil (and hence prevented from flowing on the surface as erosive runoff). Wet, saturated soils will not be able to absorb as much rain water, leading to higher levels of surface runoff and thus higher erosivity for a given volume of rainfall.[27][28] Soil compaction also affects the permeability of the soil to water, and hence the amount of water that flows away as runoff. More compacted soils will have a larger amount of surface runoff than less compacted soils.[27] Vegetative cover Vegetation acts as an interface between the atmosphere and the soil. It increases the permeability of the soil to rainwater, thus decreasing runoff. It shelters the soil from winds, which results in decreased wind erosion, as well as advantageous changes in microclimate. The roots of the plants bind the soil together, and interweave with other roots, forming a more solid mass that is less susceptible to both water and wind erosion. The removal of vegetation increases the rate of surface erosion.[29] Topography The topography of the land determines the velocity at which surface runoff will flow, which in turn determines the erosivity of the runoff. Longer, steeper slopes (especially those without adequate vegetative cover) are more susceptible to very high rates of erosion during heavy rains than shorter, less steep slopes. Steeper terrain is also more prone to mudslides, landslides, and other forms of gravitational erosion processes

Tools of the Craft Essay example -- essays papers

Tools of the Craft So you have decided you want to write. Perhaps you may feel you need to write. Sometimes this urge inside you is so sweet and urgent that you find yourself imagining the smooth feel of the keyboard beneath your fingertips. You can hear the tap tap of the keys as your fingers fly over them, forming words, sentences, paragraphs and pages of images that will flow from your mind to another’s in a bizarre and wondrous kind of telepathy. This desire may come to you as you are studying, attending classes, or working, making you yearn for the time when the tedious details of life might be abated, if only for a moment, so that you can finally work on your story. When at last you are able to grasp your favored writing instrument, whether it is keyboard, pencil or pen, you might reach inside for the words that had nagged at you so insistently earlier. Your fingers will caress the keys, or your pencil will lightly touch the page†¦and frustration will fill you more completely than your earlier desire had. For even though the words are there, deep inside the crevices of your imagination waiting to break through, the transfer of thought to print is more difficult than you had ever realized. Writing is hard, a fact that most novices and likely all experienced writers are aware of. When you find yourself fighting the inadequacies that plague your writing, where do you turn? Most likely you’ll seek the pages of the books and stories that have inspired you in the first place. Are the answers there? Perhaps; perhaps not. It can depend on the writer and the book. There are hundreds of books out there that claim to help the writer, including numerous â€Å"How To† books that address every aspect of writing that you have imagined and some that you may not have. Which are right? Where are the ones that might help you? One book for writers that has been popular for roughly 65 years was written by a professor of composition at Cornell University and revised by a writer of fiction who was well known for his fiction and essays. The Elements of Style, by William Strunk Jr. and E. B. White is a valuable guide for any writer. In it the writer will find rules for writing that are demonstrated by short examples. This book is for the writers who have found themselves stumbling over the roadblocks of grammar. It will also be of assistance in describin... ...writer, but he will discuss many of the rules Strunk insists on, and he will use examples from his own writing as well as the works of others to illustrate how the rules can be used to strengthen your writing. His tone will be more in the nature of friendly, personal advice to a friend than a clinical study of the mechanics of language, and this may appeal to a number of readers who have been overwhelmed by the other books. He will even present the rough draft of one of his short stories and demonstrate how it might be edited to improve it, listing in the following pages detailed explanations for each of the changes that were made. Finally, he will touch on certain elements of writing fiction left entirely untouched by the other two books: Dialogue, symbolism, and some discussion on the importance of plotting your novel as opposed to letting the story tell itself. Together, each of these books will provide the beginning or struggling writer with not only the tools for writing, but also with a demonstration of how to use them. These books will not make you a writer but they may be able to show you how to become a better writer. Once shown the way, it is up to you to follow it.

Fin 571 Week 4

Guillermo’s Furniture Store Scenario There are three alternatives available to the Guillermo’s Furniture Store. One is they can keep the current position or they can become broker or make it high-tech. Therefore, Guillermo’s furniture store can divide the project into current project, High tech project and the broker project. Guillermo’s furniture store needs to select the option which is good for them and can provide competitive advantage to the store. It has been clear that managers are responsible for the use of capital budgeting techniques to find out exclusive project. We have different types of capital budgeting techniques. These capital budgeting techniques are: 1-Simple Payback, and/or Discounted Payback 2-Net Present Value (NPV) 3-Internal Rate Of Return (IRR) The simple payback period: â€Å"We can define the simple payback period as the expected number of years required to recover the original investment by Guillermo’s Furniture Store† (Brown, et. al, (2006), i. e. if the store has invested $300 millions in its project, then how much time it will take to recover its invested amount. Payback period is the first formal method used to evaluate capital budgeting projects. Here is the payback period for Guillermo’s Furniture Store. The cumulative cash flow of Guillermo’s Furniture store at t = 0 is just the initial cost of -$300,000. At Year 1 the cumulative cash flow is the previous cumulative of $300,000 plus the Year 1 cash flow of $500: -$300,000 + $42,573=-$257,427. Similarly, the cumulative for Year 2 is the previous cumulative of -$257,427 plus the Year 2 inflow of $42,573, resulting in –$214,854. We see that by the end of Year 7 the cumulative inflows have more than recovered the initial outflow. Thus, the payback occurred during the third year. If the $40,584 of inflows comes in evenly during Year 3, then the exact payback period can be found as follows: pic] Applying the same procedure to Project High-Tech and Broker, we find Payback period for them is 1. 53 years and 5. 89 years respectively. It is known that the shorter the payback period, the better. As the projects are mutually exclusive, Project High-tech would be accepted but Project current would be rejected. If the projects were mutually exclusive, High-tech would be ranked over Broker and Current because High-Tech has the shorter payback. Mutually exclusive project means that if one project is taken on, the other must be rejected (Brigham, 2004). Discounted Payback Period: In the real world firms use a variant of the regular payback, the discounted payback period, which is similar to the regular payback period except that the expected cash flows are discounted by the project’s cost of capital (WACC). So we can say that the discounted payback period uses the time value of money in its decision. Here, the discounted payback period is defined as the number of years required to recover the investment from discounted net cash flows generated from the project. If we look at the values of discounted cash flows we can find that the discounted payback period for Current project is 9. years whereas High-Tech and Broker project 1. 4 year and 8. 1 years respectively For Projects Current, High-Tech and Broker, project High-Tech ranked higher as compared to the others (Brigham, 2004). Payback Vs Discounted Payback: We can also says, that a payback is a type of â€Å"breakeven† calculation in the sense that if cash flows come in at the expected rate unt il the payback year, then the project will break even for that year. Here the simple payback period doesn’t consider the cost of capital whereas the discounted payback does consider capital costs it shows the breakeven year after covering debt and equity costs. The biggest drawback of both the payback and discounted payback methods is that they ignore cash flows that are paid or received after the payback period of the project. For example, suppose Project High-Tech had an additional cash flow at Year 5 then the discounted and simple payback period will ignore these values. In real live project with more cash flow after the pay back period would be more valuable than Project with no cash flow, yet its payback and discounted payback make it look worse. This is the reason, the shorter the payback period, other things held constant, the greater the project’s liquidity. Apart from this, since cash flows expected in the distant future are generally riskier than near-term cash flows, the payback is often used as an indicator of a project’s riskiness because the longer the payback period the higher is the risk associated with the project (Brigham, 2004) (Fabuzzi, 2003). Overall there is only one major demerit of the discounted cash flow method that it do not consider the cash flow generated by the company after the payback period and due to this a project with high cash flow after the payback period is rejected in front of a project that pays no cash flow after the payback period. Net Present Value (NPV): NPV is known as the best technique in the capital budgeting decisions. There were flows in payback as well as discounted pay back periods because it don’t consider the cash flow after the payback and discounted pay back period. To remove this flows net present value (NPV) method, which relies on discounted cash flow (DCF) techniques is used to find the value of the project by considering the cash flow of the project till its life. To implement this approach, we proceed as follows: a. Find the present value of each cash flow, including all inflows and outflows, discounted at the project’s cost of capital. b. Sum these discounted cash flows; this sum is defined as the project’s NPV. c. If the NPV is positive, the project should be accepted, while if the NPV is negative, it should be rejected. If two projects with positive NPVs are mutually exclusive, the one with the higher NPV should be chosen. [pic] Here CFt is the expected net cash flow at Period t, k is the project’s cost of capital, and n is the life of the project. Cash outflows (initial investments like expenditures such as the cost of buying equipment or building factories) are treated as negative cash flows for the project because the investor cash position decrease with the investment. In evaluating Projects Current, High-Tech and Broker, only CF0 is negative, but for some project the cash flow remains to be uneven (Brigham, 2004). We can find out the most effective project using NPV method by following techniques. An NPV of zero signifies that the project’s cash flows are exactly sufficient to repay the invested capital and to provide the required rate of return on that capital. If a project has a positive NPV, then it is generating more cash than is needed to service the debt and to provide the required return to shareholders, and this excess cash accrues solely to the firm’s stockholders. This is the reason, if a firm takes on a project with a positive NPV, the wealth of the stockholders increases due to inflow of net cash in there investment. If we take the projects Current, High-tech and Broker shareholders’ wealth would decrease by $26,755 if the firm takes on Project Current, increase by $955,065 if it takes the project High-Tech but by only increase by $27,014 if it takes on Project Broker. So we can easily decide, as the projects are mutually exclusive the Project high-tech is ranked higher than the other two (Brigham, 2004). We can also say that there is a direct relationship between NPV and EVA (economic value added of the project. As NPV is equal to the present value of the project’s future EVAs generated each year. This is the reason if a project has a positive NPV its EVA and MVA (market value added, or the excess of the firm’s market value over its book value) will remain positive (Fabuzzi, 2003). This is commonly used capital budgeting technique by the managers in the current scenario. Internal Rate of Return (IRR) The internal rate of return is similar to the concept of calculating bond yield to maturity. Similar concepts are used in capital budgeting when the internal rate of return (IRR) method is used to evaluate any project. The IRR is defined as the discount rate that equates the present value of a project’s expected cash inflows to the present value of the project’s outflows: [pic] Here CFO is the cash out flow from the project where CFI is the cash inflow from the project. Now how we can find the most valuable project using IRR there are following technique that will help to find out which project among Project Current, High-Tech and Broker is most valuable: i) The IRR on a project is its expected rate of return. i) If the internal rate of return exceeds the cost of the capital (WACC) used to finance the project, a surplus will remain after paying for the capital, and this surplus will accrue to the firm’s stockholders. Therefore, taking on a project whose IRR exceeds its cost of capital increases shareholders’ wealth. iii) But, if the internal rate of return is less than the cost of capital, then taking on the project will impose a cost on current stockholders. If we look at the project Current, High-Tech and Broker we can find that for project Current, IRR is 6. 9% where as the cost of capital is 9. 7%, for project High-Tech IRR is 64. 7% and the cost of capital is 9. 17% and for project broker IRR is 11% and cost of capital is 9. 17%. Hence we can decide that project high-tech is more valuable for Guillermo’s Furniture Store (Brigham, 2004) (Fabuzzi, 2003) (Reilly & Brown, 2006). Works Cited Brigham, E. F. , & Houston, J. F. (2004). Fundamental of Financial Management. South Western: Thomson. Brown, & Reilly. (2006). Investement Analysis and Portfolio Management. Thomson ONE – Business School. Fabozzi, F. J. (2003). Financial management and analysis. New Jercy: John willy and sons.

What Is The Development Of The United States As A Nation

Many events and institutions helped to define the United States as a Nation. The Supreme Court made it possible for there to be precedents to base judgements on and for citizen to seek a higher ruling on things. The Louisiana Purchase added more territory to the nation and more people. George Washington’s presidency was very influential. The Civil War and Reconstruction was a huge defining point in the Nation’s history. Reform movements can be lengthy and include more than one cause that needs fixed in the shaping of our Nation. The Supreme Court established a way for it to question if a law was constitutional, called judicial review. This was the process by which the Supreme Court could question legally the acts of congress. It also†¦show more content†¦George Washington steered in the Bill of Rights. He also established the two term precedent for the office of President. Washington had very strong ethics that carried over in his running of the Nation. This shows in his debate about being paid for doing public service as President. Washington established how the heads of the departments (unelected officials) would operate. Washington set many precedents as President of the United States helping to shape our great Nation into what it has become. The Civil War and Reconstruction how they helped shape our country. The Civil War tore our Nation apart. It destroyed the South not only with physical devastation but emotional and economical as well. It pitted family and friends against each other and destroyed countless lives. The war was a bloody but necessary part of our nation’s development. It ended slavery but it did not stop the oppression of blacks as many would have hoped. Southern states simply made new laws. Black Codes were established and used to discriminate and deny rights to black people. Many slaves still ill-treated they had nowhere to go and no finances to use. The Civil War may have ended slavery and sent the stage for reconstruction but it by no means solved all the problems facing the divided Nation. Reconstruction actually began during the War. It was aimed at reuniting out divided country under a unified federalShow MoreRelatedThe Goals Of The United Nations1540 Words   |  7 Pagesunderstand the goa ls of the United Nations I had to go back to the very beginning, to the foundation of the United Nations. The League of Nations was formed in 1920 and lasted until 1946 when it signed over its assets to the United Nations after countries began to leave. Countries quickly began to leave once they had realized the League could not make settlements where they did not have the power to do so causing dictators to abuse this power. In 1942, before the League of Nations failed, Franklin D. RooseveltRead MoreThe United Nations and Its Humanitarian, Peace and Security, and Economic and Social Agencies1641 Words   |  7 Pages CONTENTS 1. 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